Two-step flow theory

The two-step flow theory of communication, developed in the 1940s by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Helen Gaudet in the book “The People’s Choice,” after a study into voter decision-making processes during the 1940 US presidential election, proves that mass media first reaches opinion leaders – people who actively consume media content, analyze it, and form their opinions—and then, through these opinion leaders, reaches less active mass media users. A study was conducted in which approximately 600 voters were surveyed. They were divided into groups: (1) initially intended to vote against the party they normally supported, (2) were undecided how they would vote (they don’t know), and (3) did not intend to vote at all. (Scannell, 2007). Voters were surveyed throughout the entire process and at the end, all three groups mentioned in follow-up interviews that their final decisions were influenced by others (family members, friends, acquaintances, etc.), “I’ve heard fellows talk at the plant… My husband heard that at work…” (Scannell, 2007), and only 5 percent of respondents changed their choices as a result of media consumption. Interpersonal communication had a much greater influence than political content and news consumption (Kaid & Holtz-Bacha, 2007). This study revealed that the previously used “Hypodermic Needle” theory, which claimed that mass communication is a powerful tool that can directly influence and manipulate audiences (Robinson, 2024), is irrelevant, as people are more inclined to listen to the opinions of their close circles and people whose opinions they consider important.

Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz further developed the two-step flow theory in their book “Personal Influence” (1955), which also included a study on how women’s decisions are influenced by others. This study also demonstrated the relevance and application of the two-step flow theory in real life, as individuals’ membership in different social groups (family, friends, professional and social environments, religious associations, and affiliations) has a greater influence on that person’s decision-making process. This framework highlights the importance of interpersonal influence, suggesting that persuasion depends less on media and more on trust in intermediaries. However, the theory has also been criticized, arguing that conversations about media content are more likely to occur between direct consumers than between opinion leaders and followers, creating an additional step of opinion sharing. (Postelnicu, 2014)

We can also see how this theory works today through social media channels and new opinion leaders represented by influencers, creators, and users of platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and X (Twitter). There’s a continuous cycle of persuasion and advertising, with brands pitching their products to modern opinion leaders, who are then reinterpreted and supported by those with social capital in digital communities.

References:

Lynda Lee Kaid, Christina Holtz-Bacha. (2007). Encyclopedia of Political Communication. [computer]. SAGE Publications, Inc. Available at: https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/politicalcommunication/chpt/twostep-flow-model-communication [Accessed 20 October 2025].

Monica Postelnicu. (2014). two-step flow model of communication. [Online]. Britannica.com. Last Updated: March 15. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/two-step-flow-model-of-communication [Accessed 20 October 2025].

Paddy Scannell. (2007). Media and Communication. [computer]. SAGE Publications Ltd. Available at: https://sk-sagepub-com.uow.idm.oclc.org/book/mono/media-and-communication/chpt/end-the-masses [Accessed 20 October 2025].

Robinson, M. J. (2024). Hypodermic Needle Theory (Magic Bullet Theory). [Online]. ebsco.com. Available at: https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/hypodermic-needle-theory-magi [Accessed 20 October 2025].